Classroom
Modifications
(Antecedent Interventions)
Classroom Interventions for Children with Attention Deficit
Disorder
Children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)have difficulty
with sustained attention and/or control of behavious in the school setting.
Due to the nature of their deficits and the demands of the school environment,
impairment in educational performance is common. In order to help
them compensate for their disability, most children with ADD will require
interventions in the school. The majority of children with ADD can
be adequately managed in the regular classroom with modifications; however,
some children will require special education services. Below are
intervention suggestions for educators to consider in designing a modification
plan. Based on the research literature, these modifications hold
promise as effective interventions.
Classroom Environment:
Closed classroom archetecture
Open classrooms (minimal physical
barriers between classrooms) tend to be noisier and have more visual distractions
from activities of nearby classes than closed classrooms (four walls
and a door). Since there is evidence that high noise levels will
interfere with performance and increase activity levels, closed classrooms
are recommended for children with ADD (Whalen, Hanker,
Collins, Finck, & Dotemoto, 1979)
Decrease auditory and visual distractions
during difficult tasks
There is some evidence that
stimulating classroom, that is, classrooms with varied visual and auditory
stimulation, have positive effects on the behavior of children with ADD.
This could include colored posters, animals, and music. However,
this increase stimulation will likely be distracting during new, complex,
detailed, or otherwise difficult tasks. Therefore, efforts should
be made to decrease auditory and visual distractions during difficult tasks.
(Zentall 1995)
Use individual, separated desk and
move seat closer to the teaching area
Based on the need of children
with ADD for immediate and frequent feedback regarding their behaviour,
and the observation that teachers attend most to the children in their
proximity, it is advisable to seat children with ADD close to the teaching
area. In these locations, it is relatively easy for the teacher to
provide the increased feedback without disrupting other children or the
lesson plan. Some have the child face a corner or wall, or place
the child in a three-sided cubicle to reduse distractions; however,
this strategy has been found to be ineffective. In addition, the
desk should be individual and physically separated from the other
children. This will reduce distractions and possible peer reinforcement
for inappropriate behavior (Pfiffner & Barkley 1990).
Classroom Organization and Teaching Style:
Schedule academic tasks in the morning
hours
Children with ADD have been
shown to problem solve better in the morning hours (Zager
& Bowers 1983). In addition, children's behavior
tends to escalate as the day progresses (Porrino et al,
1983). When possible schedule tasks that require attention
and control of behavior, such as over learned, repeditive, or difficult
tasks in the morning hours. Classes which involve more active participation,
such as physical education and other recreational activities, can be scheduled
in the afternoon hours (Pfiffner & Barkley 1990).
Increase structure for initial skill
developement and increase specific correct responding
Structure has been defined
as increased information about what behavior or what performance standards
are expected. Research has demonstrated that students with ADD respond
worse than comparison students when the setting or task is neutral or ambiguous
(unstructured).
Structure allows children to know the expectations and predict the consequences
of their behavour, thus, structure serves as a guide for behavior and performance.
However, studies with students without disabilities have shown that classrooms
with more choice opportunities, or less structure, have many positive outcomes.
One study found that children tolerated more failure in a choice task than
in a nonchoice task. Another study found that suggestions were related
to higher task persistence that directives.
Direct methods of instruction appear to increase the accuracy of specific academic responses. Whereas, indirect methods and choice appear to increase a wider range of responses, lead to greater task persistence, and increase problem solving. You would expect to have relatively fast initial progress in skill developement in structured classrooms.
Direct methods are those that provide information to the students about what behavior and performance standards are expected. Direct methods include direct questions, token programs, corrective feedback, controlled practice with increasingly difficult material, drills of important academic skills, computer-assisted programs, and multiple choice.
Children with ADD may require more structure under conditions where initial skill developement is important, and when specific correct responding and reduced behavior is important; this would include during new tasks and during transitions. However, once the behavior is under control, indirect methods have the potential of enhancing task persistence, creativity, and problem solving. Teachers should experiment with provif\ding opportunities for choice, letting students set their own goals, and determine their own interests (Zentall 1995).
Increase the proportion of time
spent on the subject of the lesson
Inattentive and disruptive
behaviors are likely to increase during delays in instruction, such as
organizing, distributing resources, and discipline. In one study,
approximately 20% of reading and math classes were consumed by instructional
delays, and one third of the day in self-contained classrooms for students
with learning disabilities was spent in waiting, management activities,
and off-task behavior (Baker & Zigmond 1990).
Effective classrooms are characterized by a high proportion of lesson time
spent on the subject of the lesson (Rutter 1983).
Increase student pacing of tasks
When teachers pace tasks,
many times the pace is too slow, resulting in inceased wait-time.
However, for students with disabilities, the pace may be too fast if led
by the teacher, especially during difficult tasks. Teachers may avoid
these problems related to pacing by increasing student pacing of tasks
(Zentall
1995).
Use a brisk pace of instruction
for easy tasks
There is some evidence that
a brisk pace of instruction for tasks that require rote memory is beneficial.
However, a fast pace of instruction does not appear to be beneficial for
tasks that require creativity, planning, abstracting principals, or reading
comprehension (Zentall 1995).
Increase the quality of instruction
and decrease the quantity of
time on a particular task or setting
The behavior of students with
ADD has been shown to inprove in novel settings and with novel tasks (e.g.,
tests, films, games, etc.). However, their behavior would
be expected to decline after they adapt to the tasks or setting.
As a rule, you would expect novelty to decrease from morning to afternoon,
from beginning to end of tasks, and from earlier to later. Teachers
can take advantage of the effect of novelty by increasing the quality of
instruction, thus increasing interest level, and decreasing the quantity
of time on a particular task or setting (Zentall 1995).
Increase active participation
Children with ADD have been
shown to perform better during active tasks than during passive tasks.
In addition, studies show that students perfer tasks that involve active
responding. Rather than focusing on decreasing behavior, teachers
can channel behavior by changing the nature of the tasks and instructional
methods used. Activity can be channeled both during and between tasks
(Zentall
1995).
Increase
opportunities for movement during learning tasks
Methods
such as flash cards and writing answers on cards involve movement between
responses.
Using colored markers to highlight allows for movement during wait time.
Finger
spelling and math manipulatives allow for task related movement.
Increase
opportunities for physical activity preceding each period of learning
Studies
have shown increases in attention and task completion, and decreases in
disruptive
behaviors when additional opportunities for gross motor activities were
provided.
This could include a brisk 2-minute walk or run, play time, jumping jacks
by
desk,
or foring a line and walking around the room.
Increase
on-task verbal participation
Studies
have also examined the effect of increasing on-task verbal responding.
Reading
aloud
has produced fewer errors and increased comprehension. Verbalizing
math
problems
has reduced errors and increased correct responding. Choral responding
has
reduced
off-task behaviors and increased learning. It appears to be more
useful when it
is
fast paced.
Directed participation
A student's participation
can be self-directed or directed by the teacher or a peer. Traditionally,
instruction is provided by the teacher in a lecture format. There
are several advantages to a teacher-directed lecture. Studies have
shown that there tends to be less social behavior, out-of-seat behavior,
and noise and higher engagement during a teacher-directed lecture than
during seatwork. Child-directed seatwork will likely require more
attention, persistence, and self-control of behavior than a teacher directed
lecture. However, part of the problem with seatwork may be the lack
of feedback from the teacher during this time. Frequently teachers
use seatwork time as a catch-up period for themselves, rather than using
it to provide feedback to the children as they work alone in their seats.
Giving and receiving peer tutoring can increase academic performance.
One study found higher attention for peer tutoring than large group instruction
(Zentall
1995).
Intersperse
teacher direction with seatwork
Teachers
can rduce the quantity of time spent for any period of seatwork by
interspersing
teacher direction with seatwork (Pfiffner & Barkley
1990).
Use
feedback during seatwork
During
seatwork time, teachers should provide feedback to students regarding their
performance
behavior.
Use
teacher direction during small group instruction
Teachers
are preferred over peers, especially when there is a low student-teacher
ratio,
such
as during small group instruction.
Use
peer-tutoring
One-on-one
with a peer tutor is preferable to one teacher with a large group.
Task Characteristics:
Use methods of increasing the salience
of improtant task information
Increasing the stimulation
of tasks can enhance attention. The studies seem to indicate that
educators should consider increasing the salient features of the instructional
materials by labling,highlighting, underlining, and adding color.
When using these methods, it is important to enhance the salient features
of the task, rather than the extraneous or unimportant features.
In particular, this should be done during rote learning tasks and toward
the end of tasks (Zentall 1995).
Modify task length
During individual seatwork,
it is common for children with ADD to complete little of their assigned
work, particularly with lengthy or multiple tasks. This is due to
their deficit in sustained attention. It is advisable to modify the
length of tasks to fit more within the child's attention span, and to provide
frequent feedback to the child regarding their performance (Pfiffner
& Barkley 1990).
For example, rather than giving a child 20 minutes to complete 20 math problems, the teacher can divide the 20 problems into 4 "chunks" of five problems each. The teacher can either cut up the sheet of math problems or use a sheet of paper to cover up all but one row of problems. The child can be instructed to complete the problems in a smaller period of time (e.g. 5 minutes) and to bring the completed work up to the teacher's desk. An external timer also can be used as a representation of elapsed time.. When the child finishes the "chunk" of work, s/he can bring the work to the teacher for feedback and reinforcement for task completion.
THis simple modification accomplishes several things. First, it addresses a unique need of the child with ADD by providing a task that fits within the child's attention span. Second, it allows for more frequent feedback about performance. Third, it allows for movement between tasks.
Effective Communication
Educators can provide an environment
that will cue or prompt compliance to teacher commands and class rulles
by communicating effectively.
Use effective
commands
Compliance
to teacher requests begins with a command. Teachers can intervene
to increase the likelihood that children will mind by using effective commands.
The qualities of an effective command are listed in the table below (Eyberg
& Boggs 1989).
Rule: | Reason: | Examples: |
1. Requests should be direct rather than indirect | A direct requestshould leave no question in the child's mind that s/he is being told to do something, givingno illusion of choice. | Indirect Request:
"Let's pick up the toys." "How about washing your hands?" "Why don't you open your book?" "Do you want to throw away that paper?" Direct request:
|
2. Requests should be positively stated | Positively stated request give the child information about what "to do." Negatively worded requests only tell the child what "NOT to do." | Negative request:
"Stop running!" Positive request:
|
3. Requests should be specific. Avoid vague requests | Vague requests are so general and nonspecific that the child may not know exactly what to do to be obedient. | Vague requests:
"Be good." "Be careful." "Clean up your act!" Specific requests:
|
4. Give only one command at a time. Avoid "hidden" requests. | Some children have a hard time remembering more than one thing at a time. You do not want to punish a child for having a short attention span or failing to remember. | Stringing requests:
"Go close the door, then turn in your papers, and then go sit in your seat." Hidden requests:
|
5. Requests should be simple. | The child should be intellectually and physically capable of doing what you are requesting. | Too difficult:
"Write the letter A." (If the child does not have the writing skills or does not know the alphabet) "Hand me the green block." (If the child does not know the colors) "Put the paper under the box." (If the child does not understand the concept of 'under') |
Use warnings effectively
After an effective command,
the five second rule goes into effect. The five second rule has twso
parts. First, give the child the opportunity to mind by waiting a
full five seconds before deciding whether the child has begun to comply.
Second, do not interact with the child during
this five seconds. Interaction during this time, may distract the
child from compliance.
If the child has begun to comply within the five seconds, wait until the command is completed and reward the child with a labeled praise. For example, "John, thank you for throwing away the trash like I told you. I like it when you mind me!"
If, after five seconds, the child has not begun to comply, the child should be given a warning. A warning is an if-then statement that connects the command with a consequense. For example, "John, if you don't pick up that paper and throw it in the trash, you will have to go to time out."
After the warning, the five second rule goes into effect again. Compliance after the warning should be rewarded with a labeled praise. Failure to begin to comply should be punished immediately.
Use clearly stated rules
There are some behaviors that
are not adequately controlled by direct commands. These behaviors
usually include those that you have said, "no, don't, stop, or quit" to
repeatedly. These behaviors may require a class rule. Before
implementing class rules, make them explicit by discussing them with the
children at a neutral time. Describe the problem behaviors.
Explain the rules, the consequences for violating the rules. Use
a warning on the first violation after establishing a rule. Subsequent
violations receive no warning and are immediately consequented. It
is also helpful to provide visual reminders of the rules and to review
the rules prior to problem situations, such as prior to transistions.
References
Abranowits, A.J. & O'Leary, S.G. (1991).
behavioral interventions for the classroom: Implications for students with
ADHD. School Psychology Review, 20 (2), 220-234.
Baker, J.M., & Zigmond, N. (1990) Are regular education classes equiped to accomodate students with learning disabilities? Exceptional Children, 56 (6), 515-526.
Bryan, T.S. (1974). An observational analysis of classroom behaviors of children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 7,35-43.
Pfiffner, L, & Barkley, R. (1990) Educational placement and classroom management. In R.A.Barkley, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment (pp. 498-539). New York: Guilford.
Porrino, L., Rapoport, L., Behar, D., Ismind, D., Bunney, W., (1983). A naturalistic assessment of the motor activity of hyperactive boys. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 681-687
Rutter, M. (1983). School effects on pupil progress: Research findings and policy implications. Child Developement, 54, 1-29.
Whalen, C.K., Henker, B., Collins, B.E., Finck, D., & Dotemoto, S. (1979). A social ecology of hyperactive boys: Medication effects in the structured classroom environments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 65-81.
Zagar, R., & Bowers, N. (1983). The effect of time of day on problem solving and classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 20 (3), 337-345.
Zentall, S.S. (1995). Modifying classroom
tasks and environments. In S. Goldstein, Understanding and managing
children's classroom behavior (pp. 356-374). New York:
Willey.